Postal Survey Essay Example for Free

Postal Survey EssayI have decided to use postal surveys and internet questionnaires for my survey methods. Both of these are comparatively inexpensive, this is one of the reasons I chose them as I would not be able to afford face to face questionnaires, focus groups or phone surveys as they would be to expensive for me to do when starting a new business. Postal Survey I have chosen to use postal surveys as even though they have to be of downcast depth, I present be able to find come out of the closet the basic needs of my customers, on which I can stem my businesses goals. For example if most of my results say that my customers would want a cheap yet elegant service, my goal would be to provide this. I also believe postal surveys will be a good idea, as I can post them around the area in which I believe my customers will be (mainly Chorley). By doing this I will be marketing my business to the customer. Another fashion of arranging my postal survey would be to find out wher e one throng live, or where people live who have been buying wedding magazines (as these will be my main customers).Then I can send my postal surveys to them so I am not wasting money by sending the survey to people who will definitely not be my clients. I have also decided that when sending out these postal surveys, I will attach well-nigh kind of coupon or money save voucher so that there is a reason for whom I sent the survey to, to fill it in. An example of the coupon would be 10% off organisational fees with KLH marry Co-ordinators. By doing this I would be numberting my research done, and also attracting clients to my business.Internet Questionnaires Again this type of survey means getting back a low depth of information, however I still believe the information I gain will be useful. This form of surveying is relatively inexpensive, and it can be aimed at specific markets, in this case, people who want to get married. As with the postal surveys, I will be hoping to send my questionnaires to people who wish to get married. I could do this by buying information off websites that have peoples email addresses.This way I can send the information directly to people who I know could be interested in it. Overall I know both postal surveys and internet questionnaires are a slow way of finding information, and have a low response rate, but I believe if I send them to the right people, I will get a fairly good response, (better than the average postal or internet questionnaire survey), and seeing as I will add a coupon to both, I bear more people will return my questionnaires.I have also decided that if I decide I need more information, I will add a few open questions into the questionnaire that the reader can fill it in if they have an interest in my company. Unfortunately there is a play that neither of these 2 survey methods would work, or that my results will be very basic. In this situation, I would hope to be able to bring together some people who hav e replied to my questionnaires that wish to get married.To do this I would ask on the questionnaires if they are planning a wedding or will be doing soon. From these people I will hope to be able to bring them together for a focus group, I can then find out their needs and wants from a wedding planner. I know this will not be a cheap, and I expect I will have to give them some kind of reason to do this, for which again I would offer some kind of redeemable coupon.

Evolution of Orangutans Essay Example for Free

Evolution of Orangutans EssayOrangutans are apes with reddish-brown hair that originated 2 million-100,000 years ago. Orangutans are categorized the Hominidae family, which is commonly know as the Great Apes. Orangutans live in Asia, only embed on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. They are known for their long arms which can reach to a length of 7m, fingertip to fingertip (See Appendix A, Fig. 1). There is no real evidence of who the orangs ancestors were. The primate occupation was thought to start 65 million years ago this began as the Euarchonta which lead to the primates present today(See Appendix A, Fig. ).Primates were divided into two groups called Strepsirrhines, which include lemurs and lories, and Haplorhines, which included tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. After 35 million years, the Haplorhines split into another two groups called Platyrrhini, which included the New World monkeys of South and Central America, and the Catharinni, the Old World monkeys of Africa and Asi a, and apes. roughly 10-15 million years after that, the group split into two superfamillies called Cercopithecoidea which includes Old World monkeys, and Hominoidea, which includes apes.Some researchers say that the orangutan originated from Lufengpithecus, while others say that they originated from Sivapithecus. Lufengpithecus has quartette species Lufengpithecus lufengensis, Lufengpithecus hudienensis, Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis and Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis. Lufengpithecus lufengenis fossil was found in lignite beds at the Shihuiba Locality in Lufeng County, Yunnan, China. It was thought to represent Sivapithecus because of the similarities amongst the species. The Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis fossil, that dates back 10-13. million years ago, was discovered not long ago in Thailand.Researchers think that the Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis is the closest to the orangutan because of the shape of its jaw, and because it was found in Thailand near where the orangutans live today. But on that point is no true evidence that the Lufengpithecus is the ancestor of the orangutan by just looking at their face structure and where it was found (See Appendix A, Fig. 3). Sivapithecus lived in the woodlands of Central Asia 8-12. million years ago. It was about 5 feet long, weighing about 50-75 pounds. It had feet desire a chimpanzee and it had a diet of plants with large canines. The large canines were used to eat tough tubers and stems rather than fruits. This species was when early primates came down from trees and started to explore the grasslands. Other than its chimpanzee like feet, its face resembled an orangutan (See Appendix A, Fig. 4). Sivapithecus mainly lived on the ground because of the size of their body.One of the things that a Sivapithecus could do is walk standing upright like a human. Standing upright for a Sivapithecus wasnt so easy as they didnt always have balance when using their hind limbs so they used their forearms to help. walk of lif e vertically helped the Sivapithecus by walking on the ground rather than climbing trees, so they didnt need to use the trees to move around.. Walking on the ground aptitude not have been an option because there were some areas that didnt have a lot of vegetation.As the continents were drifting apart, there was a decrease in vegetation. This was an environmental pressure for the Sivapithecus because it made them rely on their hind limbs to move around the area. Sivapithecus was so flexible that it made it easier to swing and climb trees. The extension and stable joints in their body gave them a huge advantage and helped them in the ability of hanging and swinging around in trees. There isnt a lot of tuition about the ancestors of the orangutan and how it evolved because there isnt enough evidence.Some researchers say the Lufengpithecus is the ancestor and some say the Sivapithecus is, but no one is utterly sure if either of those two species are the actual ancestors of the orangu tan. Just like the species Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis, which was discovered about 8 or 9 years ago, there may be a species not yet discovered and it might be the orangutans ancestor. From what researchers found, they dont fully know how the orangutan evolved.

Philosophy Saul Kripke Naming And Necessity Philosophy Essay

Philosophy Saul Kripke Naming And sine qua non Philosophy EssayHe is best known for his attack on the descriptivist (Fregean, Russellian) guess of reference with respect to proper names, according to which a name refers to an object by virtue of the names being associated with a description that the object in turn satisfies. He gave several examples purporting to render descriptivism implausible.The key features of Kripkes contribution to the philosophy of language are (1) his account of names as rigid designators and non clusters of decisive descriptions and (2) his view that there are necessary a posteriori and contingent a priori truths. Both these claims are contentious and continue to be debated vigorously.In Naming and Necessity Saul Kripke argues against type-type-identity theory by the use of an argument from philosophy of language.Kripke wants to demonstrate that if whizz believes in the identity of psychical- and brain states, hotshot needs to accept the theorys in full consequence, namely that there cannot be brain states which are not psychic states or vice versa. To defend identity theory one would thus be in a need to prove not wholly empirical (e.g. by scientific research), but analytical a priori, that neither brain states without moral states, nor mental states without brain states could exist. This is quite hard, if not impossible, to do since on the one hand mental states are intuitively independent from the somatic domain (Cartesian intuition) and on the other hand zombies are conceivable.Kripke introduces two types of designators (namings) of entities, namely rigid designators and non-rigid (flaccid) designators. Rigid designators refer to the very(prenominal) entity in all possible world, if the designator has any reference at all. For example, the rigid designator Anthony Flemming refers to the same entity in all conceivable worlds. Flaccid designators may refer to different entities in different possible worlds. For example , the author of this essay is Anthony Flemming only in this very world. Flaccid designators refer to entities only by use of contingent properties (e.g. X is the author of this essay).Identities between two rigid designators that name the same entity are necessary. The proposition that they are identical is trivially a priori true (you do not need any experience to prove it). If not two designators that are claimed to be identical are rigid, this identity is contingent, if it is true. The identity might be true in this world, but this has to be proven empirically since one could conceive a non-rigid designator referring to some other object.Kripkes strategy is to show, that identity theorists could not argue mind-brain-state identity to be a contingent identity. He demonstrates that both, the stipulation mental state and the term brain state that are claimed to refer to one and the same entity are rigid designators. As an example Kripke uses the proposition pain is c-fiber stimula tion. The term pain is a rigid designator because you could not imagine it to refer to something else than the sensation pain in another world. According to Kripke one could transfer this example to every other mental-state and the brain state, which is said to be identical with it.Identity theorists have asserted, the mental states are brain states identity was contingent just like the shake up is molecular movement identity is contingent. Kripke replies, even the latter identity was not a contingent one at all, but necessary. It only seems to be contingent, for one confuses the physical stead heat with the sensation of feeling heat. But the name heat could either mean the one or the other thing, since the physical property heat is not identical with the sensation heat (There is heat, namely molecular movement, when there is nobody to perceive the sensation caused by it). If the designator heat names the physical property, it is a rigid designator and the identity is necessary. I f the term heat names the feeling there is no identity at all.Eventually Kripke reasons from this, that type-type-identity has to be necessary, if true, which connotes that every mental state is identical with a specific brain state in every conceivable world. But mental states without brain states and brain states, that are not mental states, either the conception or identity theory has to be false.Kripkes argument seems to be some sleight of hand at first glance, because it is that astoundingly persuade and still it seems at least imaginable that mental processes are really brain processes and nothing over and above in this world. This might just be, because he does not have any idea how to solve the mind-body problem himself. Moreover Kripkes argument is a very strong one indeed. It is very difficult to thrash because its core structure is logically soundIf it isa) true that the terms for both mental- and brain-states are rigid designators, andb) they are identical, thenc) the identity has to be necessary.The only style to attack the argument is to challenge the framework of semantics it makes use of. The excerpts contain less information on this topic. Important questions would be for example Which contingent identities could we know a priori, if any? Is a possible world really identical with a conceivable world and what does this denote to rigid designators?It is obvious that this is too far-reaching to be examined in this paper.Kripke is a peculiar man with a sharp intellect. He talks fast and he thinks perhaps even faster. One is still stricken by the fact that he does not seem vitally concerned about applying philosophy to social issues. His ideals do not seem to be those of the visionary human beings intellectual, like Sartre, Russell, Chomsky or Cornel West. Kripke is one of Americas most respected philosophers, still he is not significant in public debates. For many he is a living legend.

Analysing Remediation Of Contaminated Land In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay

Analysing damages Of Contaminated Land In Nigeria Environmental Sciences EssayCrude gravelly is an important mineral imaginativeness vital to everyday life. Modern trend toward increasing dependence on the use of petroleum hydrocarbons for energy needs has resulted in severe pressure on the energy resource as head as increased accidental leave outs of fossil c everywhere and its products into the milieu. This occurs frequently during operations such as extraction, transportation, storage, refining and distri only whenion so far technology-driven precautions. It would be reasonable to state that anoint color contamination is one of the most serious forms of water and impart pollution as it endangers public health, imperils drinking water, devastates inhering resources, and disrupts the economy.Nigeria is one of the largest uncivil vege hedge fossil fossil crude producing countries in the serviceman and depends almost entirely (over 90%) on it for her revenue. Th e Niger Delta constituent in Nigeria contains the bulk of Nigerias proven crude and splosh reserves. The region is ridden with environmental problems, ranging from devastation of land and water (crippling income generation through farming and sportfishing), through death of thousands of domestic animals, disastrous onset out-breaks, various illnesses to deaths. This is as a result of crude anoint splashage which has become a daily experience in the region. at that place exist just about prevention and mitigation measures associated with crude and gas geographic expedition activities but these measures atomic number 18 non implemented in Nigeria. Owing perhaps to poor enforcement of the standards by regulatory bodies, corruption, high cost of procuring and maintaining some of the mitigation equipments, ignorance, lack of vision, or c arelessness. These arrest led, to political unrest, with the people of the area feeling exploited and c all in alling for reparations. Con tamination of mark by is a widespread environmental problem that often requires clean-up of the contaminated website. Though many an new(prenominal)(prenominal) techniques wear been undertaken to address cover contamination of land in the Niger Delta region, these either take a leak minus effects or result to incomplete clean-up of the hydrocarbon contaminated scandal. Although disposal or open dump burning whitethorn be simple and easily adaptable, these techniques befool undesirable health and safety hazards from e.g. air pollution. Bioremediation is an alternative technology which is likely to be capable of achieving permanent remediation.Nature has developed microorganisms that can degrade hydrocarbons to quash their accumulation to a point of being detrimental to life. To achieve rapid bioremediation, nutrients and aeration are applied to the soil and the indigenous microorganism is often augmented to take in enhanced bioremediation. The design of an efficient biorem ediation system requires a set of careful studies of the topical anaesthetic conditions of the site to be remediated.Despite several indications of the environmental degradation and health effects caused by oil contamination of land in the Niger Delta region, little attention has been paid to investigating the effectiveness of the use of bioremediation in this region. Undertaking an evaluation of a selection of case studies could provide better insight whether bioremediation is the appropriate firmness of purpose to oil contamination problems in the region.Various application of bioremediation on oil contaminated soil has been reported with encouraging results but its effectiveness has not been fully employed in the region.1.2 Aim and ObjectivesThe primary aim of this study is first to consider oil contamination of land as a global problem, assess the causes and effects of oil contamination of land both across the world and in Nigeria and secondly to evaluate whether bioremediat ion could be an effective treatment technique of land contaminated by oil with particular reference to the Niger Delta of Nigeria. In tell to achieve this, the following will be addressed(a) The extent and causes of oil contamination(b) The effect of oil contamination(c) oil contamination in Nigeria(d) therapeutic methods(e) Case studies and/or questionnaire1.3 Overview of oil contamination of landPollution of the land by oil has become a matter of widespread concern, attracting attention of politicians, environmentalists and scientists. There is growing public concern as a wide variety of toxic organic chemicals are being introduced accidentally or deliberately into the environment. crude oil hydrocarbons are one common example of these chemicals, which enter the environment frequently and in large volumes through numerous routes. These routes include seepage from natural deposits, military personnel activities in exploration, production, transportation and storage of petroleum . Such human activities inevitably involve the risk of accidental autumns that can only be minimized but not eliminated completely. Deonarine and Basdeo (2001) explained that leaks from wellheads, leaks from pipelines, and run downs at gathering stations and deposition of fatty mud are in like manner other routes through which hydrocarbon enter the environment. Oil pour forths are now decorous a frequent and major source of water and land contamination across the globe especially in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.1.4 Justification of the StudyIn beat past, land contamination was usually perceived in terms of relatively rare sequents, with poorly known but possibly catastrophic conflict on human health and the environment. According to Nathanail and Bardos (2004) numerous incidents drew media attention and these include Love canal in New York Times Beach second in United States and Minamata, Japan disaster. They further explained that today land contamination is no longer perceived in terms of few severe incidents alternatively as extensive infrastructural problems of varying intensity and significance that is inherited from past and present industrial and waste disposal activities.Nowadays across the globe, land contamination is gaining a higher official recognition and is been recognised as a serious challenge to present and future generation. Repennyly a lot of policies for sustainable development and contaminated land management have been introduced and so many countries especially in developed countries have implemented these policies. Despite this trend, the Nigeria organisation and oil multinational companies operating in that country are yet to implement such policies. They agree with sustainable development and good environmental management but these are only seen as a paper exercise. There is no adequate implementation of sustainable development and environmental management in Nigeria.Moreover, oil spill incidence still occurs and no ade quate management is given to the spilled site. There are no known instances in Nigeria whereby an oil polluted site had been fully remediated and restored by any of the oil companies. Most polluted sites are neglected to the mercy of slow process of natural recovery that takes several long time to accomplish. Even in terrestrial environments where remediation is conventionally cheaper and easy, in the Nigerian situation, it is a luxury that is impossible. For example, most sites in Ogoniland where incident oil spill incident occurred since 1970 remains unclean till date 2009. Besides deliberate negligence, corporate corruption and penchant to cut-corners hinder remediation programmes in the Nigerian oil industry. Remediation contracts are often awarded to contractors who simply transport topsoil from elsewhere to mask contaminated spill sites. These sites are often reported as begin remediatedAlthough many people and organisations especially non-governmental organisation (NGO) have writing about oil pollution in Nigeria and its negative effects, but solution to the pollution have been limited.1.5 social system of the ReportChapter one began with an introduction and justification of the study. It brought problems, Aims and objectives and conceptual framework of the work.The second chapter carries out a refresh of the existing on oil contamination of land with emphasis on the meaning, causes, effects, issues across the world and Nigeria, technology and oil spillage as a major cause of the oil contamination. Also this chapter review oil contamination in the Niger Delta of Nigeria.Chapter 3 looks at the methodology, nature and sources of data collection as well as the technique for data analysis.The Chapter four looks at the proposed solution to oil contamination.Chapter five focuses on case studies and Discussion of findings of the study. (develop best practice guide for Nigeria)Chapter six looks at the conclusions and recommendationsCHAPTER TWO2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 IntroductionOil contamination is a major environmental problem which is caused as result of oil operations. Activities of oil companies constitute environmental problems with hearty implications for economic development and human health. As a result of its impacts some individuals live as aliens in their own communities, where they are unable to actualize their interest or aspirations. This chapter provides a review of the menace of oil contamination.2.2 The problem Oil contamination of land.The demand for energy is increasing globally as a result of rising population, increased industrial enterprise and prosperity. This has resulted on severe pressure on available energy resources. Energy has a major impact on every aspects of socio-economic life as it plays a vital role in the economic, social and political development of any nation. As a result, the demand for energy is increasing worldwide, along with this, pollution is on the increase. Many parts of the world have as a consequence, suffered significant contamination. Khan et al (2004) pointed out that these oil contaminants enter the environment involvely as a result of oil waste (sludge), spills during exploration, production and transportation, leakage from storage sites, or from industrial facilities. Oil spillage and oily waste deposits represent the mass of hydrocarbon contamination of our planet. Al-Saleh and Obuekwe (2005) maintain that accidental and deliberate oil spills have been and still continue to be a significant source of environmental pollution. Contamination of soil arising from spills is one of the most limiting factors to soil fertility and hence crop productivity as well as animal activity. Also the runoff from oil spill impacted site usually degrade the quality of the fresh water source which serves the domestic rural water supply needs of the server communities. Molina-Barahona et al (2004) corroborated that oil spills caused great damages to the ecology and econom y of rural regions as well as nations. Therefore these polluted areas constitute a with child(p) potential risk to human health, environment, subsoil al-Qaida, flora and fauna as well as groundwater.2.3 Causes of oil contaminationCrude oil is extracted world-wide at a very high rate to meets the bulk of the worlds energy requirements. At the same time, crude oil constitutes a potential hazard if discharged into the environment. Such discharge happens despite the fact that the distribution and storage network for crude oil is closely and well monitored.Oil development activities involve several polluting processes. The extent of these processes depends primarily on the environmental practices and technology used by oil companies. Apart from oil spills that mainly cause oil contamination of land, there are other different operations in the petroleum industry that cause contamination. These include bore operation, leakage from wellhead and pipeline and over-flows at gathering statio ns.Fisher and Sublette (2005) say that these causes of oil contamination are as a result of overflows, intentional dumping , illegal activity, aging facilities, equipment failure, operators delusion, construction defect, accidental damage, transport accident, defeat/bypassing protective system, ineffective quality control, over pressuring, natural phenomenon, blow out of oil well, sabotage and corrosion.During drilling, each well that is drilled produces drilling wastes, including formation water and drilling muds. Miguel and Anna-Karin (2004) pointed out that these wastes are frequently deposited into open pits, from which they are either directly discharged into the environment or leached out as the pits degrade or overflow from rainwater. Extraction of oil is also accompanied by seepage and spills. Offshore drilling routinely creates low level spills, and sometimes causes a blowout, a coarse gush of petroleum. Most oil-wells are situated in deserts and oceans, which is where the majority of the worlds documented blow-outs have occurred. Storage facilities and pipelines can typically be destroyed by e.g. either natural disasters like hurricanes, or accidents during construction or due to acts of sabotage or ageing of the facilities all resulting in release of large amounts of oil.The table below shows incident oil spill causes and number of incidents among 2000 and 2008.Table 1 Incident oil spill causes 2000-20082007Incidents CausesNo of incidents200020012002200320042005200620072008Equipment failure8,3838,4298,3419,13210,0789,95810,209,10,8498,578Operator error3,4592,8852,3052,8892,9972,6842,9082,8853,022Transport accidents6097135636311,0501,1521,1031,3611,387Dumping1,5231,4941,2659608067578631,004935Natural phenomenon472716497711685575804708726Sabotage6,4287,20474576,5313,9073,865385838603,942Accidental spillage(aging facilities, construction defect, blow out of oil well, etc)10,55211,80010,26610,31410,0789,95810,20910,84910,578Source (National respons e center statistics U.S 2008)It is observed from the table above that equipment failure and accidental spillage are the two main causes and these account for over 50% of oil spillage cause. Accidentals spillage could be as a result of traffic accident, aging facilities and blow-out of oil well.In addition to the above table, European Environmental Agency report that tanker accidents account for about 10-15 per cent of all oil that spill into the ocean world-wide every year. Fingas and Charles (2001) argued that oil spills accounts for a highest number and volume of oil contamination. Mokhalalati et al (2000) demonstrated that observations from many oil spill incidents around the world have shown that both land and aquatic environment suffer oil exposure and these environments are particularly difficult to protect and also clean- up once a spill has occurred.2.4 Effects of oil contaminationThe oil and gas sector is one of the most lucrative sectors in stage business but reducing it s negative impacts is one of the most pressing issues today. As an example, one barrel of crude oil can make one jillion barrels of water undrinkable and make hectares of land and water bodies useless. It has also destroyed crops, damage the quality and productivity of soil use for farming and as well damage fisheries. This exacerbates hunger and poverty in affected communities. In addition the residents often experience an increase of conflict with their neighbourhood.Miraglia, A.R (2002) observed that Chenega Bay, Niger Delta, Ecuador indigenous communities etc have been fighting due to oil compensation. This has resulted in killing of people, destroying of houses, property, etc.Khan,M.I and Islam,R.M (2003) asserted that practically all activities of hydrocarbon operations are accompanied by undesirable discharges of liquid, square(p) and gaseous wastes which have enormous devastating impacts . When oil reaches and penetrates into the soil and deep sea, the effects will be appa rent for long period of time, thus the oil that reaches quickly will be more toxic. The effect depends on the following factors such as size of the spill, the spread of the oil slick, the toxicity and persistence of the oil and the sensitivity of the environmental region affected.However oil contamination has caused a range of pervasive impacts on the environment, human health, economy and society. Ecological effects may include physical and chemical changes in habitats, changes in growth or behaviour and increased mortality of organisms and species. Wildlife can be impacted by direct physical contact with the oil, e.g., filterfeeding shellfish and bird eggs can be smothered by oil and the feathers of birds or the fur of seals lose their insulating properties when coated with oil, starring(p) to the danger of death from cold. Also if oil is ingested, it can damage the digestive system of the animals. Its vapours have the potential to damage the nervous system of animals, as well as their lungs and liver.The oil impedes proper soil aeration as oil film on the soil surface acts as a physical obstruction between air and the soil and this affects soil fertility which consequently has great negative impact on intellectual nourishment productivity. Oil contamination affects certain soil parameters such as the mineral and organic matter content, the cation exchange capacity, redox properties and pH value. As crude oil creates anaerobic condition in the soil, conjugate to water logging and acidic metabolites, Onwurah et al (2007) stated that the result is high accumulation of aluminum and manganese ions, which are toxic to plant growth.The smearing root plants with oily substances may cause the plants to wilt and die off due to blockage of stomata inhibiting photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration and reduces permeability of cell membranes. Due to the toxic nature of oil, Pezeshki et al (2000) asserted that petroleum-based products have adverse impact on yields of various plant species and in high doses they can depress germination of plants and cause necrosis of seedlings.A substantial high rate of illness as well as psychological and physical symptoms is usually reported in areas affected by spill oil and on increase on the days when oil exposure was at its highest. Rodrigue-Trigo et al (2007) stated that these illnesses include respiratory tract irritation, vertigo, headache, sore eyes, sore throat and exacerbation of asthma. They further stated that anxiety and depression rate is usually on high increase in the exposed region.Oil contamination has shown to have great influence on the engineering properties and behaviour of a soil. Puri, K.V (2000) corroborated that it has resulted in decrease in shear strength of a clayey soil, angle of inherent friction of sand based on total stress condition decrease with the presence of oil in the pore spaces and compression characteristics of sand are significantly influenced. Khamehchiyan et al (2007) asserted that it has resulted in decrease in the value of the constrained modulus with increase in the degree of oil saturation. Oil contamination induces a reduction in permeability and strength of soil samples. Generally oil contamination has drastically reduced the bearing capacity of the soil.2.5 Worldwide issues Oil spill across the worldIn the last decade, a lot of oil contamination across the world has been experienced as a result of oil spill incident which account for highest cause of oil contamination. Meniconi et al (2002) pointed out that, characterizing the spilled oil, monitoring the affected ecosystem, determining the fate of the oil in the environment and afterward assessing the environmental damage caused have been a pressing issue. The spill case studies described below encompass crude and fuel oil release on coastal ecosystems and land. We know that oil spill on sea can spread and dispersed to land by wind, tide, wave action and rainfall. Any oil spill on sea also affects the land. Some of the oil spill case studies in Nigeria and major spills across the world are highlighted belowThe Torrey canon supertanker disaster (1967)This is the first major oil spill to awaken the supranational community to the dangers of oil transport. On 18th March, 1967 the Torrey Canyon carrying 117000 tons of Kuwait crude oil ran aground on the Pollards Rock in the Seven Stones take down between the Scilly Isles and Lands End, England. Approximately119, 000 tonnes of Kuwait oil leaked from the ship and spread along the sea between England and France, killing most of the oceanic life it touched along the whole of the south coast of Britain and the Normandy shores of France.Sands, P. (2003).The Torrey Canyon oil spill proved for the first time the immense environmental damage that could result from an accident involving a large oil tanker as well as revealed the problems inherent in the international system for assessing liability and compensation for o il spill damage. Jacobsson (2007) stated that this spill triggered the International Compensation Convention.Exxon Valdez (1989)In March 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez hit a reef in Prince William sound, Alaska and spilled about 37,000 tonnes of oil, the pip spill in US history. The spill subsequently affected a variety of shores, mainly rock and cobble, to varying degrees over an estimated 1,800km in Prince William Sound. The spilled oil impacted a wide range of intertidal organisms and as a result thousands of marine animals and seabirds were killed. (Peterson 2001)Braer (1993)The oil tanker Braer ran aground at Garths Ness on the Southern Shetland Isles Coast on 5th January, 1993 spilling approximately 84,700 tonnes of crude oil. The spilt oil was dispersed naturally in the wave action against the mating Sea. The BRAER spill was unusual in that a significant amount of oil was blown on to land adjacent to the wreck site. Seabird casualties were also middling low. Considering the size of the spill, the environmental impacts were surprisingly limited . (Gregory 2007).Erika IncidentThe Maltese tanker ERIKA, carrying some 31,000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil, broke in two in a severe storm in the Bay of Biscay on 11th December, 1999, off the coast of France. About 20,000 tonnes of oil were spilled. The main environmental impact of the spill was on sea birds and 65,000 oiled birds were collected from beaches, of which about 50,000 were dead. This incident led to rapid moves to accelerate the phasing out of all single hull oil tankers. (Le Moigne, and Laubier, 2004).Prestige (2002)In kinsfolktember 2002, oil tanker prestige sunk of the Galician north west of Spain spilling about 30,000 tonnes of oil. The spilled oil affected the entire coastline particularly the exposed rocky shores and blonde beaches which caused the largest ecological catastrophe in the history of Spain (de la Huz et al, 2005). Bernabeu et al (2006) observed that the spill had a huge economic im pact as it affected the fishing and marine cultivation on which the Costa da Morte (Galicia, N.W. Spain) depends economically.Tasman Spirit (2003)The oil tanker Tasman spirit grounded in the channel of the port of Karachi, on 27th July, 2003 carrying a cargo of 67,535 tonnes of light crude. Approximately 30,000 tonnes of oil spilled when the Tasman Spirit broke down. Strong winds and rough seas spread the light crude along 10 kilometres (seven miles) of the highly be residential and recreational coastline. As a result of the spill incident, people living around the area have experienced health problems. The coastal environment in which the Tasman Spirit spill occurred was a rich and diverse tropical ecosystem which was negatively affected by the spill. (Janjua et al 2006)Gulf war 1991The Gulf state of war in Kuwait 1991 resulted in one of the largest man made environmental disasters, and almost certainly the greatest acute contamination of land and water with oil, in history as th e result of oil spills. Kostreba (1999) described that during the Gulf war an estimated 67 million tonnes of crude oil was spilt and burnt on land. The oil spills were as a result of deliberate damage done by Iraqi forces during their invasion of Kuwait. Crude oil was deliberately dumped into the gulfs and oil production, storage, and refining facilities were destroyed. The oil leaking from the well heads, storage tanks, and pipelines formed huge oil lakes as deep as 2 meters. Many of the oil wells were also set on fire and this resulted in the aerial deposition of partially combusted oil particles and associated non-combusted products of the oil fires, which also polluted large areas.The resulting oil pollution affected mainly Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Hans-Jorg Barth (2001) pointed out that over 700 km of coastline from southern Kuwait to Abu Ali Island were smothered with oil and tar, erasing most of the local plant and animal communities.Lebanon (2006)During hostilities in Leban on in 2006, Isreali planes struck the Jiyyeh office plant about 25 kilometres south of Beirut. The hit storage tanks leaked 20,000 to 30,000 tonnes of oil into Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The oil slick covered 170km of coastline and was threatening Turkey and Cyprus. This is the worst environmental problem in the history of the country. The oil spill damaged land and marine ecosystems, destroyed fishermens livelihoods and rendered coastal areas lifeless. To worst the issue, no clean-up started until after three weeks due to security situation in Lebanon. (Friends of the Earth 2007).Ogbodo oil spillOn 24th June, 2001 the community of Ogbodo in Rivers State, Nigeria, heard a loud ebullition which was the bursting of a Shell Petroleum pipeline which traverses the village lands and waterways. Crude oil began to spill out into the environment. Rains and swiftly flowing water rapidly distributed the crude oil into the waterways surrounding the community. At least about 26,500 barrels of oil were spilt. The impact of the spill and the fire on local livelihoods was extensive and the devastating impact of the oil spill was exacerbated and prolonged because of failure to contain the spill swiftly.(www.waado.org).Oshire-2 oil spillAccording to Osuji and Opiah, (2007) on the 24th July, 2003, an oil spillage occurred in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers State in Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The oil spill was as a result of leakage of one of the above-ground pipelines that criss-cross the Oshire-2 oil field. About 3,000 barrels of crude oil was allegedly spilled as a result a suspected sabotage.Oil spill in OgonilandOgoniland is the site of huge Shell facilities that have devastated the local environment. On June 6, 2001, Shell oil pipeline, which passes through the Baraale community, ruptured and started spilling crude oil into nearby forests, farmlands and houses. Many houses were flooded with crude oil. Disaster struck on 1st October, 2001, when the le aking oil caught fire. Residents of the community were about going to bed that night when a large fire started following a loud explosion. (Olukoya 2002). Also on 1 Sep 2003Crude oil from a ruptured oil pipeline caught fire, destroying farmland and polluting streams in the Ogoni area.This Day (2006) reported that oil spill from one of the Shell companys oil wellheads has devastated another Ogoni community. The spill is as a result of leak which occurred at Bomu Well-2, a dormant well in Ogoni land belonging to Shell Petroleum Development political party of Nigeria limited.Oil spill incidence in Nigeria has become everyday news and its occurrence is too numerous that it cant all be highlighted in this study. federal official ministry of Environment on 2006 reported that quantity of oil spilled over 50 years is equivalent to 50 Exxon Valdez spills. This makes the Nigeria delta one of the 5 most oil polluted environments in the world.2.6 Oil spill in Nigeria2.6.1 Oil exploration in Ni geriaIn 1956, Royal Dutch Shell discovered crude oil at Oloibiri, a village in the Niger Delta, and the first commercial production started in 1958. Nwilo and Badejo (2005a) stated that 50 years later, 606 oil fields exist in the Niger Delta, of which 360 are on-shore and 246 off-shore. Nigeria is now the largest oil producer in Africa and the sixth largest in the world, averaging 2.7 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2006. Nigerias economy is heavily dependent on dough from the oil sector, which provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65% of budgetary revenues (Central intelligence Agency (CIA) World Fact Book, 2005).Current oil exploration and production activities in Nigeria is concentrated in the Niger Delta region, a huge fertile wetland which covers a land mass of over 70,000 km2, and cuts across 800 oil producing communities. Oguejiofor (2008) demonstrated that the region has huge oil and gas reserve and accounts for 90 per cent of national exports and 70 per cent of Government revenue, mainly from oil and gas exported is from the region. Geological volume and research shows that the region (both onshore and offshore areas) is particularly conducive for the formation and accumulation of oil and gas. Today, the oil industries are highly visible in the Niger Delta and have control over a large area in the region. The area is crisscrossed by thousands of kilometres of pipeline, punctuated by wells and flow stations. Much of the oil infrastructure is located close to the homes, farms and water sources of communities.2.6.2 Overview of the damage in the Niger deltaOil and gas activities and enormous oil installations deployed in the Niger Delta explains her vulnerability to oil spill. The social and environmental be of oil contamination have been extensive. These include destruction of wildlife and biodiversity, loss of fertile soil, pollution of air and drinking water, degradation of farmland and damage to aquatic ecosystems, all of which have caused serious health problems for the inhabitants of areas surrounding oil production. Oil spills in the Niger Delta have destroy vegetation, mangrove forests, food/cash crops, fishing ground/marine life, reduces nutrient value of the soil, induces land fragmentation, and sets communities on fire. For example a spill at Osima creek in Agbakabiriyai, near Nembe on February 28th 1998, led to eighter from Decatur days of fire, which razed down the entire community. This resulted to the destruction of about 400 houses, and the displacement of about 130,000 inhabitants. Also a spill that occurred on 7th December, 2008 in Ikarama community terribly caught fire on 1st of March 2009. The fire caused more damage to the environment (www.eration.org/index.php?). Given these challenges, land as an economic cause resource base becomes critical for the Niger Delta region.Without fertile soil and good water, indigenous communities in the region lose their mode of survival and are faced with the crisis of food shortages. Due to oil spillage, many water ways, land and marine systems in the region have been badly polluted and residents have been badly affected by enviro

Peer Pressure in Gang Violence

Peer Pressure in Gang ViolenceOne of the GangPeer group compel is a major problem for teens instantly days, caused by hale require by others and their wanting to fit into certain groups. The negative fellow group is being named by the society as gangs. Adolescents associated with these groups find out they gained prestige. Nevertheless, not all companion group rack has negative figure out, analogous academic and athletic achievement. (Ayres Nalebuff, 2005)Based on studies, most teens/adolescents think that joining a group gives them popularity with their matess. The average teen feels pressure either from the schooltime day, confederates, or parents thus enticing the need to belong to groups. Oftentimes, they get involved in violence, alcohol or drugs users, and sex. Studies leave alone prove that high school students give much time with their friends than with parents or other influential adults. Teenagers who get involved with delinquent friends shun themselves out -of-door from good or straight kids and look at to fit in to their own kind. Nowadays, majority of families are headed by single parents, most of them mothers, who work extra jobs. sensation parent are spending little time with their teens, thus leaving them victim to peer group pressure. Research shows that peer group pressure may lead to delinquent behavior among teenagers, which includes criminal acts such as motor vehicle theft, burglary, and robbery and others (Cabot, M. (2007).Peer pressure thunder mug manipulate a soul into smoking, drinking, or doing drugs and other things that is harmful to his/her body. Nevertheless, peer pressure can also be supportive by influencing someone to do the proficient thing kind of of ill-use. For instance, a person can be a model to his/her friends and let them know he/she wants to do right and he/she wants to pitch how he/she acts or what he/she was like. Some plurality struggle because they are depressed by what they have done or w hat people done to hurt their feelings in the late(prenominal) (Healey, J. 2007).Peer Pressure is said to be responsible for teenagers behaviors starting from choice in clothing to drug usage. A study shows that the outcome of peer pressure on teenagers behavior may be highly overestimated. This study was published in Addiction (Vol. 91, No. 2), adds to a increasing body of research that implies peer pressure is a weaker factor in adolescent behavior than many had believed. Much emphasis is not given on peer pressure, dont discuss or do not look hard for evidence of other factors. Going congest and try to critically examine the importance of peer pressure. Researchers did studies over a twenty year span to find that peer pressure was easily blamed for teenage behavior but never examined. Other issues such as family life, economic background, environment, and biological tendencies all may be as important as or even more important than peer pressure in determining behavior. Teenager s who smoke tends to choose peers who smoke as friends and children with the same habits have a tendency to hang together. Peer pressure can be least(prenominal) factor in the use of drugs and other habits related to adolescent life, but nonetheless peer pressure is a factor that influences drug use among teenagers.From ages twelve to nineteen is a stage in a teenagers life that determines what kind of adult he or she will become. This stage of adolescence, known as the constructive years, is the subject of deeper study and research to establish why adolescents are vulnerable to the phenomenon called peer pressure. Disturbing deem of incidents of teenage drug use, pregnancy and teenage felo-de-se is the best reason to fuel the need for such research. Probably because as children they are taught the importance of having and maintaining friends or maybe they dont feel that they can talk to their parents or teachers when problems arise. Or perhaps simple reason as wanting to rebel against the pressures placed on them as youths. Because adolescents spend their time either at al-Qaeda or in school, it is within these confines that the answers to adolescents behavior lay. In other words, family and school can sometimes cause adolescents to give in to peer pressure because of an overemphasis on the importance of social adjustment, a lack of interest or communication on the part of the parents and teachers, and the wild expectations that these entities create.Even if the reason for attending school is to receive an education, it also gives children with a medium through which they can incur relationships with other children that eventually release into friendships. Their capability in forming friendships can be traced back to even the pre-school years and its importance emphasized by eager parents who want their children to fit in at school. Interactions with friends or other peers are crucial for the festering of a mature morality. Almost all would agree tha t social interaction is essential but at times parents are guilty of over-stressing this importance. For Example, the birthday parties where all(prenominal) child in the neighborhood was invited to come regardless of whether or not they were actual friends. The need to socialize children also happens in the classroom at school. The classroom represents not only an educational ground but a powerful social context in which the psychological adjustment of children and adolescents can be influenced. Teachers make headway social interaction by assigning exercises that necessitate working in pairs or groups. Besides, when a teacher notice a child playing alone, they will persuade him or her to join the other children failing to notice the possibility that the child might have preferred to be alone. Therefore, from an early age, children are taught to set the importance of social interaction and this value remains in them as they move into the adolescent years. Result of which is that adolescents value their friendships deeply and in some cases more so than their relationships with family members. This accounts for the adolescent not being able to deny their friends for fear of losing the bonds that they have formed and is the cause of their greater vulnerability to peer pressure.Having experienced peer pressure, during my adolescent years in order to fit in, because its not easy being the only one doing something different. Oftentimes, I feel worried Ill be picked on if I dont go with the crowd, or I lose my friends. Other times I do stuff because I think my friends will like me more, or because my gangs are doing it, so it seems normal. Both close friendships and wider friendship groups have provided opportunities for me to join them, and that was to smoking. Until I progress tod that I was into smoking for a longer catch of time and hard to quit.But I asked myself if I was doing what I really think is right or just giving in to my peers pressure to run into my friends and my gang. But as I grow older, I was faced with some challenging decisions. Some of them dont have a clear right or wrong answer. Meaning I dont really know if what I was doing was really good for me. I realized that making decisions on my own was hard enough, but when people got involved and tried to pressure me one way or another, it was even harder. People, who were my age, like classmates and gangs. They tried to influence how I act, to get me to do something I do not really want to do. But because I want to stay in the gang, I was pressured to do things and sometimes overdo them to impress my gang.The peer pressure during my adolescent years was really something I had to deal with, maybe even adults too.I underwent a peer mentoring program, which matches older youths with younger ones. The former provide the latter(prenominal) with guidance, advice, and all forms of support I need to be able to meet challengers of my adolescent life. The older youth do not only s erve as mentors but as role models to the younger ones like me. They were not perfect but having been through the same stage and most likely, the same problems, predicaments, and challenges in their homes, school and community they are in the position to provide friendly advice, positive influences, attention and moral support to me and other younger teens.I learned to choose my friends wisely. Focus on developing firm friendships with people with the same values and ideas like me. Even having one friend who will back me up when I want to go against the group will help. I learned to be strong and just go with what I know is right. Good friends respect my individuation and I stood up for what I believe in and learned to respect myself more.Giving in to peer pressure tapers off later in life. If adolescents realize that social interaction is important but only to a certain point, then they will have the strength to say no to their friends. Similarly, if parents and teachers somehow engraft a way to better communicate with their children and students respectively, these adolescents would most likely come to share their feelings with them and not rely so much on their peers for feedback. (Havelin, K. 2000) And lastly, if parents and teachers became aware of the unrealistic expectations they place on teenagers, the result would be a decrease in conflict as well as a decrease in the number of adolescents who feel the need to rebel through conformity to peer pressure. In other words, examining the ways in which family and school cause adolescents to give in to peer pressure leads to a resolution of the causes. What is the overall result? Adolescents have a healthier sense of the meaning of friendships, they have an alternative other than peers to whom they can make for to and they are freed from any unrealistic expectations that they themselves cant understand. But most importantly, they become less susceptible to the traps of peer pressure, thereby, giving in to peer pressure is abbreviate (Kaplan, 1983).Learning about forgiving development should give you a deeper understanding of the many different pathways humans can take as they grown and develop through the lifespan. It is important to understand child life from the childs point of view. This means understanding how the way we see and make sense of the world is affected by cognitive-developmental factors. The same applies to understanding adolescents and adults or all ages. Physical, cognitive and social capacities are intertwined. A change in how we understand the world has implications for how we interact with others which in turn has an impact on physical development. Conversely, playing games provides experiences with groups that foster new understandings about the physical and social universe. Development is profoundly affected by social context (culture and social institutions). Our beliefs about the nature of development what is normal and what is not normal are anchored in a particular social, historical and cultural context. Understanding human development can help you better understand your own life experiences and life course. It can foster enhanced self-understanding and personal growth. Beneficial societal change is possible and individuals and groups can change social institutions and policies for the better. Understanding human development deeply and in context can help us better respect human wisdom and human fallibility. This, in turn, can help us become more creative, innovative and effective teachers.Peer pressure can be described as a positive or negative reaction that occurs when one is influenced by certain people or peers. Peer pressure is forever and a day surrounding us. One can first be introduced to peer pressure at a very young age and young people can be influenced easier then mature adults. I believe family members, friends and religious institutions have the strongest influence of peer pressure on society. But from past experi ences, friends have the strongest influence on teenagers. With the proper guidance and right choice of friends, one will not have any trouble with lifes difficult decisions, and will hopefully, do the right thing.Ayres, I., Nalebuff, B. (2005). Peer Pressure. FORBES. 175 (7), 118-118.Cabot, M. (2007). Pants on fire. New York HarperTeen.Havelin, K. (2000). Peer pressure how can I say no? Perspectives on relationships. Mankato,Minn LifeMattersHealey, J. (2007). Peer pressure. Thirroul, N.S.W. Spinney Press.Kaplan, L. S. (1983). Coping with peer pressure. New York Rosen Pub. Group. Hersch, P.(1998). A tribe apart a journey into the heart of American adolescence. New York Fawcett Columbine.

Advertising Analysis :: Adverts, Advertisements

We see them in the subways, bus stops, magazines, and television, but what do they mean? How do they cope to catch our attention? Advertisements often find ways to sell their products by psychologically manipulating people. The advertising industry makes us greedy of others and convinces us to be suffering with what we have (Valko).Steve craze ads usually feature women with absurdly large leaves and hourglass bodies which try to force the audience to wonder what the ad is about. whiz of these odd ads appears in the treat/April 2001 issue of Twist Magazine. It features a young woman with a big head helplessly running, as an airplane zooms over her at an abandoned airport. on that point are three characteristics within the ad that contribute the whole idea that Steve Madden shoes, costume and accessories will improve your egotism image.The main purpose of Steve Madden ads is to suggest to its viewers that they will feel good about themselves by wearing his products. The mod els big head conveys self-esteem and self-pride and she challenges the consumer to advert as good as she does. The young woman wears a face of apprehension and is running away from her old self to start her new assured life with Steve Madden products. The sleek black leather jacket on top of a sexy white shirt, gyp enough to reveal her abdomen and curvaceous hips together with her tight low rider blue jeans, black pointy high boots, and trendy black bag grapple her fashionable outfit. The embellished womans physique is aimed to appeal to women and girls between the ages of 16 through 25 in search of funky, hip, sexy clothes. Steve Madden likes to think of his clothes of as being classifiable and he illustrates his idea by setting an abandoned airport as the background for the ad. There is not a bole in sight as the model runs across the old gum stained pavement. This calls attention to the idea that by wearing Steve Madden buyers isolate themselves from everyone else. She is in any case proud and conceited and cannot intend being compared to anyone else.The Steve Madden logo in the ad also contributes to the main idea of the ad. It could have been anywhere on the page, why the sky? . Steve Madden ads ceaselessly have their logos imprinted on the sky to imply that the sky is the limit with Steve madden products (Liza).Advertising Analysis Adverts, AdvertisementsWe see them in the subways, bus stops, magazines, and television, but what do they mean? How do they manage to catch our attention? Advertisements often find ways to sell their products by psychologically manipulating people. The advertising industry makes us envious of others and convinces us to be unhappy with what we have (Valko).Steve Madden ads usually feature women with absurdly large heads and hourglass bodies which try to force the audience to wonder what the ad is about. One of these odd ads appears in the March/April 2001 issue of Twist Magazine. It features a young woman with a big head helplessly running, as an airplane zooms over her at an abandoned airport. There are three characteristics within the ad that contribute the whole idea that Steve Madden shoes, clothes and accessories will improve your self image.The main purpose of Steve Madden ads is to suggest to its viewers that they will feel good about themselves by wearing his products. The models big head conveys self-esteem and self-pride and she challenges the consumer to look as good as she does. The young woman wears a face of apprehension and is running away from her old self to start her new confident life with Steve Madden products. The sleek black leather jacket on top of a sexy white shirt, short enough to reveal her stomach and curvaceous hips together with her tight low rider blue jeans, black pointy high boots, and trendy black bag complete her fashionable outfit. The embellished womans physique is aimed to appeal to women and girls between the ages of 16 through 25 in search of funky, hip, sexy clothes. Steve Madden likes to think of his clothes of as being distinctive and he illustrates his idea by setting an abandoned airport as the background for the ad. There is not a body in sight as the model runs across the old gum stained pavement. This calls attention to the idea that by wearing Steve Madden buyers isolate themselves from everyone else. She is too proud and conceited and cannot imagine being compared to anyone else.The Steve Madden logo in the ad also contributes to the main idea of the ad. It could have been anywhere on the page, why the sky? . Steve Madden ads always have their logos imprinted on the sky to imply that the sky is the limit with Steve madden products (Liza).

Historic Jonesborough, Tennessee :: Descriptive Essay About A Place

Historic Jonesborough, TennesseeJonesborough is the oldest township in Tennessee consequently, it draws people from all over the world. The town is known for its great amount of visitors during the story copulation festival, Jonesborough Days, and during the fall, when some just like to roam the streets to check out the many interesting shops. For the first-time visitor, I recommend that your first stop to be to the Visitors Center. There atomic number 18 so many things to do in this small town you really need a plan to cut you started. The Visitors Center offers several brochures and maps of local attractions and festivals in the atomic number 18a. For $1.00 you can also purchase a map that gives a brief description of each of the shops and cafes. The map also gives the location and description of the downtown inns and recognize and breakfasts in the area. The Visitors Center also offers several gift items and souvenirs, such as postcards and books written about the towns rich history. Several different types of tours of the town are offered, including a horse drawn carriage ride throughout the town. Individual or group tours are also available at change rates. An individual tour can cost between ten to twelve dollars per person and a large group tour cost as heights as three hundred dollars per person. Jonesborough.http//www.historicJonesborough.com/index.html.Another place to visit is the Lollipop Shop. This store is quite unique because it offers over 400 different types of candy. If you have a sweet tooth, this is the shop for you. The kinds of candy they offer are the old-fashion candy sticks I used to buy for a dime, different flavored hard candies, several types of gummy candies, gum, and of running lollipops. While we were there, my wife and I inquired about services the Lollipop Shop offers, such as birthday party packages available through the shop. The bear parties are very unique, and we hadnt tried them before. The children are given a ch oice of one of about twenty different choices of stuffed faunas. They then go to stuff the animal and fluff it. They also offer to give their creation, which comes with adoption papers, a name. This party is offered for fourteen dollars per child. With another package, for eighteen dollars per person, in addition to stuffing their animal of choice, they get to decorate a cookie, and they get a slushie.